ItisnotoftenrecognizedthatChinawasoneofthefewplacesintheearlymodernworldwhereallmerchantshadequalaccesstothemarket.Thisstudyshowsthatprivatetraders,regardlessofthevolumeoftheirtrade,weregrantedthesameprivilegesinCantonasthelargeEastIndiacompanies.Allofthesecompaniesrelied,tosomeextent,onprivatecapitaltofinancetheiroperations.Withouttheinvestmentsfromindividuals,thetradewithChinawouldhavebeengreatlyhindered.Competitors,largeandsmall,tradedalongsideeachotherwhileenemiestradedalongsideenemies.Buddhists,Muslims,Catholics,Protestants,Parsees,Armenians,Hindus,andotherslivedandworkedwithinthesmallareainthewesternsuburbsofCantondesignatedforforeigners.Cantoneseshopkeeperswerenotallowedtodiscriminateagainstanyforeigntraders.Infact,theshopkeepersweregenerallyworkinginacompetitiveenvironment,providingcustomer-orientedservicethatgeneratedgoodwill,friendship,andtrust.Thesecontributedtothegrowthofthetradeasawhole.Whilemanyprivatetraderswereinvolvedinsmugglingopium,others,suchasNathanDunn,weremuchopposedtoit.ThecasestudiesinthisvolumedemonstratethatfortunescouldbemadeinChinabytradinginlegitimateitemsjustassuccessfullyasinillegitimateones,whichtellinglysuggeststhattherapidspreadofopiumsmugglinginChinacouldbearesultofinadequate,ratherthanexcessive,regulationbytheQinggovernment.
TRADE friendship Hindus PRIVATE COMPANIES OTHERS
